Introduction The music industry has traditionally favored artists with the broadest popularity and the highest potential to generate revenue, leaving niche musicians often struggling to reach audiences and gain recognition. However, the emergence of social media platforms and digital communication technologies has brought about a paradigm shift in the way music is created, shared, and experienced (Jenkins, 2006). One platform that has significantly revolutionized the music industry is TikTok. As a video-sharing social networking service, TikTok has disrupted the traditional music industry dynamic by providing a unique space for music discovery and promotion. TikTok’s impact can be attributed to its user-generated content model and the participatory culture it fosters (Dinhopl & Gretzel, 2020). Users can create and share content featuring snippets of songs through short-form videos, often accompanied by choreographed dances, challenges, or creative interpretations. This democratization of music creation and dissemination has allowed both established and emerging artists to reach a vast and diverse audience directly. This literature review examines TikTok’s impact on the music industry through the theoretical frameworks of media convergence culture, participatory culture, social presence theory, and fandom. These theories will provide valuable insights into the transformative changes brought about by TikTok. Media Convergence Culture Theory (Jenkins, 2006) offers insights into TikTok’s transformative power by illustrating how it combines music, video, and social media into a seamless and engaging experience. TikTok acts as a cultural hub where music, user-generated content, and audience interaction intersect, creating a vibrant ecosystem for music discovery and viral trends. Participatory culture theory, as discussed by Jenkins, emphasizes individuals’ active engagement and creative expression within a media environment. This analysis will explore how TikTok empowers users to participate in the music-making process by using songs as backdrops for their creative contributions. Notable examples include the rise of Lil Nas X’s “Old Town Road” and the resurgence of Fleetwood Mac’s “Dreams,” both propelled to prominence through TikTok’s user-generated content. Social Presence Theory examines the degree of salience of others in interactions and the consequent salience of interpersonal relationships (Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976). On TikTok, users engage with interactive features like duets, reactions, and comments, enhancing their sense of social presence. These features allow users to participate in music-related content creation, collaborate, and engage in social interactions centered around music. Through this lens, we can understand how TikTok’s design and features contribute to a sense of psychological closeness, engagement, and social connection among users. Furthermore, we will draw upon Fandom Theory to explore the deep emotional connections and sense of community within TikTok’s music-oriented subcultures. Building on Baym’s (2018) insights, we will examine how TikTok amplifies fans’ roles in shaping the meaning and reception of music. Hashtag challenges, duets, and collaborative content creation cultivate a sense of belonging and shared identity among music enthusiasts, contributing to the success and longevity of certain songs and artists. By adopting these theoretical lenses—media convergence culture theory, participatory culture theory, social presence theory, and fandom theory—we will provide a comprehensive analysis of TikTok’s impact on the music industry, highlighting the platform’s transformative influence on music discovery, user participation, and fan engagement. Finally, we will consider how applying these theories can contribute to the success of future communication technologies, such as blockchain-based dApps. Understanding TikTok’s impact on the music industry and its implications for future developments will uncover new possibilities for the evolution of communication technologies in the digital age. The Music Industry and Its Evolution The paradigm shifts in music industry The music industry has experienced several paradigm shifts, each fundamentally altering the relationships between artists, record companies, and fans, as well as reshaping how music is created, distributed, and consumed. Traditional models of music production were predominantly centered around major record companies which held immense power and authority. They functioned as the gatekeepers of the industry, wielding the power to select, produce, promote, and distribute artists’ music. This monopolistic system often led to artists having limited control over their careers and the creative process, and a disproportionate sharing of revenue, favoring the record companies (Negus, 1992). The music industry has been marred by several issues historically, including restricted access to audiences for many artists, a high barrier of entry for independent artists, and an imbalanced revenue model where artists often received a minimal share of their music’s earnings. These long standing issues have been further compounded by the ‘copyright war’ incited by the digital revolution, leading to numerous legal and ethical challenges around music piracy and intellectual property rights (Lessig, 2004). However, the advent of digital music platforms in the late 20th and early 21st century brought forth a significant shift in the music industry dynamics. With digitization and the internet, music became more accessible than ever before, leading to widespread issues with illegal downloads and copyright infringement. Yet, this digitization also introduced new business models, such as streaming platforms. These platforms, like Spotify and Apple Music, redefined the way music is consumed and distributed. They became the new gatekeepers, amassing control over music discovery and distribution which was once held by record companies (Aguiar & Waldfogel, 2018). This paradigm shift saw the record companies grappling to maintain their influential role. As digital music platforms ascended, they took over the gatekeeping role, but in a different guise. Unlike record companies, these platforms gave listeners access to an enormous library of music, affording them the freedom to discover and consume music at an unprecedented scale. This shift also challenged the existing revenue models and brought new opportunities for artists to connect directly with their audiences, thereby transforming the landscape of the music industry (Graham, Burnes, & Lewis, 2004). Persistent Challenge: The Lack of Fan Engagement Despite these transformations in the music industry, a persistent challenge remains, the lack of fan engagement. The traditional models of music production and distribution have been marked by a notable disconnection between artists and their fans. Before the rise of digital and social media, fan engagement was primarily orchestrated through live performances, fan mail, and organized fan clubs. These
