Introduction

The music industry has long privileged artists who have the broadest popularity and who will bring in the most money. More niche musicians struggle to reach audiences and gain recognition, the emergence of social media platforms and digital communication technologies has brought about a paradigm shift in the way music is created, shared, and experienced (Jenkins, 2006). One such platform that has garnered widespread attention and revolutionized the music industry is TikTok. As a video-sharing social networking service, TikTok has disrupted the dynamic within the music industry by providing a unique space for music discovery and promotion. TikTok’s impact on the music industry can be attributed to its user-generated content model and the participatory culture that it fosters (Dinhopl & Gretzel, 2020). Users have the ability to create and share content featuring snippets of songs through short-form videos that are often accompanied by choreographed dances, challenges, or creative interpretations. This democratization of music creation and dissemination has allowed artists, both established and emerging, to directly reach a vast and diverse audience. To examine the impact of TikTok on the music industry, this literature review will employ the theoretical frameworks of media convergence culture, participatory culture, social presence theory, and fandom. These theories will provide valuable insights into the transformative changes brought about by TikTok in the music industry landscape. Media Convergence Culture Theory (Jenkins, 2006) offers valuable insights into the transformative power of TikTok. In this section, I will explore how TikTok exemplifies convergence culture as it combines music, video, and social media in a seamless and engaging manner. By acting as a cultural hub where music, user-generated content, and audience interaction intersect, TikTok creates a vibrant ecosystem for music discovery and viral trends. Participatory culture theory, as discussed by Jenkins, emphasizes the active engagement and creative expression of individuals within a media environment. In the analysis part, we will examine how TikTok empowers users to actively participate in the music-making process by using songs as a backdrop for their own creative contributions. We will delve into notable examples, such as the meteoric rise of Lil Nas X’s “Old Town Road” and the reemergence of Fleetwood Mac’s “Dreams,” both catapulted to prominence through TikTok user-generated content. Social Presence Theory refers to “the degree of salience of the other person in the interaction and the consequent salience of the interpersonal relationships” (Short, Williams, & Christie, 1976, p. 1087). The theory examines how communication technologies influence individuals’ perceptions of being socially present with others, even in mediated environments. On TikTok, users engage in a variety of interactive features, such as duets, reactions, and comments, that enhance their feeling of being socially present with others. These features allow users to actively participate in music-related content creation, collaborate with others, and engage in social interactions centered around music. Through the lens of social presence theory, we can comprehend how TikTok’s platform design and features contribute to a sense of psychological closeness, engagement, and social connection among its users. Furthermore, we will draw upon Fandom Theory to reveal the deep emotional connections and sense of community that emerge within TikTok’s music-oriented subcultures. Building on the insights of Baym (2018), we will explore how TikTok amplifies the role of fans in shaping the meaning and reception of music. Through hashtag challenges, duets, and collaborative content creation, TikTok cultivates a sense of belonging and shared identity among music enthusiasts, contributing to the success and longevity of certain songs and artists. By adopting these three lenses—media convergence culture theory, social presence theory, and fandom theory—we will provide a comprehensive analysis of TikTok’s impact on the music industry, showcasing the platform’s transformative influence on music discovery, user participation, and fan engagement. Finally, in the discussion section, we will consider how the application of these theories can contribute to the success of future communication technologies, such as blockchain-based dApps. By understanding TikTok’s impact on the music industry and its implications for future developments, we can uncover new possibilities for the evolution of communication technologies in the digital age.  

 

The Music Industry and Its Evolution

The paradigm shifts in music industry 

The music industry has experienced several paradigm shifts, each fundamentally altering the relationships between artists, record companies, and fans, as well as reshaping how music is created, distributed, and consumed. Traditional models of music production were predominantly centered around major record companies which held immense power and authority. They functioned as the gatekeepers of the industry, wielding the power to select, produce, promote, and distribute artists’ music. This monopolistic system often led to artists having limited control over their careers and the creative process, and a disproportionate sharing of revenue, favoring the record companies (Negus, 1992). The music industry has been marred by several issues historically, including restricted access to audiences for many artists, a high barrier of entry for independent artists, and an imbalanced revenue model where artists often received a minimal share of their music’s earnings. These long standing issues have been further compounded by the ‘copyright war’ incited by the digital revolution, leading to numerous legal and ethical challenges around music piracy and intellectual property rights (Lessig, 2004). However, the advent of digital music platforms in the late 20th and early 21st century brought forth a significant shift in the music industry dynamics. With digitization and the internet, music became more accessible than ever before, leading to widespread issues with illegal downloads and copyright infringement. Yet, this digitization also introduced new business models, such as streaming platforms. These platforms, like Spotify and Apple Music, redefined the way music is consumed and distributed. They became the new gatekeepers, amassing control over music discovery and distribution which was once held by record companies (Aguiar & Waldfogel, 2018). This paradigm shift saw the record companies grappling to maintain their influential role. As digital music platforms ascended, they took over the gatekeeping role, but in a different guise. Unlike record companies, these platforms gave listeners access to an enormous library of music, affording them the freedom to discover and consume music at an unprecedented scale. This shift also challenged the existing revenue models and brought new opportunities for artists to connect directly with their audiences, thereby transforming the landscape of the music industry (Graham, Burnes, & Lewis, 2004).  

 

Persistent Challenge: The Lack of Fan Engagement

Despite these transformations in the music industry, a persistent challenge remains, the lack of fan engagement. The traditional models of music production and distribution have been marked by a notable disconnection between artists and their fans. Before the rise of digital and social media, fan engagement was primarily orchestrated through live performances, fan mail, and organized fan clubs. These forms of engagement, although valuable, lacked the immediacy, authenticity, and interactivity inherent in digital platforms. Fans were more passive consumers than active participants in the music scene (Baym, 2018). Even with the advent of streaming platforms, the fan engagement issue still existed. While these platforms changed the way fans accessed music, they did little to bridge the gap between artists and fans. The artist-listener relationship in these platforms is often transactional, mediated by algorithmic recommendations rather than genuine interaction. There was still a void in the music industry landscape, an environment where fans can actively engage with artists and their music in a creative and participatory manner (Aguiar & Waldfogel, 2018). This is where TikTok, as a social media platform, caused a significant shift in the music industry. TikTok addressed these long-standing issues in the music industry by fostering a participatory culture, enhancing fan engagement, and democratizing the music creation and distribution processes. The platform offers a new approach to fan engagement, not only enabling fans to discover and share music but also to participate in the music-making process itself.   

 

Media Convergence Culture Theory 

Convergence Culture Theory, as proposed by Jenkins (2006), conceptualizes the way that content flows across multiple media platforms, the collaboration between various media industries, and the increasingly migratory behavior of media audiences in pursuit of the entertainment experiences they seek. According to this theory, there is a cultural shift in the way consumers interact with media, as they are encouraged to pursue new information and draw connections among disparate media content. The theory also encapsulates the notion of participatory culture, which suggests that consumers are not merely passive recipients of media content, but also active participants in its creation and circulation. As a striking manifestation of Convergence Culture, on the other hand, TikTok combines elements of music, video, and social networking in a seamless manner, disrupting traditional models of music production, distribution, and consumption. TikTok allows users to access a global library of music clips to include in their videos, enabling them to become content producers and disseminators, rather than just consumers. This shift has implications for how music is promoted and discovered, effectively decentralizing the control held by traditional gatekeepers in the music industry. Moreover, TikTok redefines the ways in which users interact with media content. Users can comment on videos, share them, or utilize the same music to create their own rendition. In this context, TikTok provides a platform for participatory cultural production. In the realm of the music industry, TikTok has disrupted traditional gatekeeping mechanisms, which have historically been under the purview of record labels, media outlets and streaming music platforms. Rather than these entities dictating the trajectory of music trends, users, through their content creation and dissemination activities, influence music trends and determine the popularity of songs. This democratization and decentralization of music promotion and discovery epitomize the principles of media convergence culture. However, TikTok is also revolutionizing music distribution. One empirical study by Baschiera and Oakley (2020) found that TikTok’s algorithm, unlike traditional radio and TV broadcasters, does not discriminate based on genre or artist reputation. Instead, it promotes content based on user engagement, providing an equal platform for all music types and artists to potentially go viral. This study illuminates how TikTok, through its convergence of media forms and participatory culture, democratizes music distribution. And this transformation has impacted music production. Another study by D’Amato (2021) examined artists increasingly creating music with the express aim of going viral on TikTok, often prioritizing catchy hooks and danceable beats to encourage user-generated content. This shift in the music creation process illustrates how TikTok’s media convergence culture is reshaping the way music is produced.  

 

Underground v.s. Mainstream: A real world example of how TikTok help underground musician become popular

The traditional route to mainstream recognition for musicians has typically been fraught with challenges. For many artists, especially those in the underground scene, breaking through to the mainstream has often required significant resources, including financial backing, record label support, and extensive networking. Traditional gatekeepers, such as record companies and media outlets, have held significant sway in determining which artists gain widespread exposure and recognition. For instance, prestigious accolades like the Grammy Awards have often been dominated by artists with substantial industry backing. Recognition by the Grammy Awards typically reflects an artist’s commercial success and industry connections, rather than grassroots popularity. Underground artists, even those with a strong fan base, often find it difficult to gain recognition by such prestigious awards due to their relatively lower industry visibility and resources. However, the emergence of TikTok has broken the moat between the underground and mainstream in the music industry. In late 2018, underground rapper Lil Nas X released “Old Town Road,” a country-infused rap song that would soon become a viral sensation on TikTok. The song quickly gained traction on the platform due to a dance challenge, where users created their own videos featuring the song accompanied by a specific dance routine. This viral trend significantly contributed to the song’s popularity, making it a cultural phenomenon (Hudson, 2020). The popularity of “Old Town Road” on TikTok led to its climb on music charts worldwide. The song eventually reached the number one spot on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it remained for a record-breaking 19 weeks. This success was not confined to commercial success alone; it extended to critical recognition as well. In 2020, Lil Nas X won two Grammy Awards for “Old Town Road,” one for Best Pop Duo/Group Performance and another for Best Music Video (Grammy.com, 2020). Historically, the Grammy Awards have often been associated with industry gatekeepers and committees nominating artists who have been recognized by their peers in the music industry. Yet, in the case of Lil Nas X, his recognition and subsequent Grammy success were largely fueled by the song’s popularity among the public, particularly on TikTok. This example underscores the significant changes brought about by TikTok in the music industry, demonstrating how the platform disrupts traditional gatekeeping roles and democratizes the process of music discovery and promotion.  

 

Social Presence Theory

Social Presence Theory, as articulated by Short, Williams, and Christie (1976), is a psychological concept that describes the degree to which individuals perceive others as being present within a mediated communication environment. According to this theory, social presence is a crucial factor in shaping the nature and quality of interpersonal interactions, influencing individuals’ engagement, and fostering a sense of connection. When applied to TikTok, Social Presence Theory offers valuable insights into the platform’s unique appeal and the distinct interactive dynamics that it fosters. On TikTok, a range of features such as duets, comments, and reactions enable users to engage with one another, fostering a sense of shared social presence (Dinhopl & Gretzel, 2020). For instance, the duet feature allows users to create content alongside others, even if they are physically distant. This kind of collaboration, facilitated by the platform’s technological design, enhances the sense of being socially present with others, fostering interpersonal connections and collaborative creativity. TikTok’s comment section also contributes to social presence. Unlike traditional music platforms where audience interaction with the artist is often limited, on TikTok, users can directly engage with the artists and other fans by commenting on videos. This interaction creates a more intimate and immediate connection between artists and their audiences, further enhancing social presence. The use of reactions on TikTok adds another layer to the perceived social presence. By reacting to videos, users are able to express their feelings and engage with the content in a nuanced and dynamic manner. The capability to see others’ reactions also contributes to the sense of a shared social experience, akin to a live audience’s response at a concert.  

 

A Comparative Analysis of Social Presence: TikTok versus Spotify

Spotify, launched in 2008, quickly established itself as one of the leading music streaming platforms worldwide. Its free-to-use model, extensive music library, and personalized recommendation algorithms have attracted millions of users, making it a significant player in digital music consumption.  In this comparison of TikTok and Spotify, we aim to demonstrate how these platforms’ differential application of Social Presence Theory impacts user engagement and overall platform dynamics. Before delving into the comparison, it is worth noting the scale and reach of these two platforms. TikTok and Spotify, as of the latest data, command users in the 1.8 billion (Mansoor, I. 2023) and 517.69 million (Jack Shepherd, 2023) range respectively, illustrating their significant impact on the global digital music landscape. However, a question worth pondering is: As an internet product launched in 2017, how did TikTok manage to surpass its predecessors and further change the layout of the music industry? An analysis of comparison might help to propose that this outcome is significantly linked to social presence.  

Table 1: Social Presence Comparison: TikTok v.s Spotify

 

Spotify’s social presence is primarily manifested through shared playlists and activity feeds (Vigliensoni & Fujinaga, 2016). The communal aspect of these features allows for some degree of social engagement, enabling users to view what their friends are listening to and discover new music based on the listening habits of others. However, the nature of these interactions is largely passive, as they revolve around consumption of pre-existing music rather than active engagement or content creation. Users can share and follow playlists, but the engagement is not real-time and is based on passive consumption rather than dynamic interaction. In contrast, TikTok facilitates a highly active and interactive form of social presence. Users on TikTok are not merely passive consumers of content; they are active participants, regularly creating and sharing short videos, many of which incorporate music. TikTok’s unique features, such as duets and reactions, foster a vibrant culture of interaction and real-time engagement. Users can respond directly to other users’ content, engage in trends or challenges, and feel a part of the larger TikTok community. This level of active engagement and the potential for real-time interaction significantly enhances the sense of social presence on TikTok (Anderson & Jiang, 2018). The content on TikTok is intrinsically tied to the music featured in the videos. Users engage not just with the music, but also with the creative interpretations and reactions of other users, creating a rich and multi-layered social experience. Music on TikTok becomes a shared social phenomenon rather than a solitary listening experience, contributing to a heightened sense of social presence. The difference in the nature and level of social presence between Spotify and TikTok can be considered a major factor in TikTok’s rapid rise in popularity and its profound impact on the music industry. The emphasis on active engagement, participatory culture, and real-time interaction on TikTok not only makes the platform more appealing to users, but also fundamentally alters the way music is consumed and experienced, disrupting traditional models and transforming the music industry landscape.  

 

Fandom studies

Theories related to fandom, originally explored by Jenkins (1992) and later by Baym (2018), explores the active and participatory nature of fan cultures, highlighting fan communities that form around shared interests and engage in collaborative behaviors. Key aspects include participatory culture, where fans actively create and share derivative works; fan communities that provide spaces for mutual support and shared identity; fan-producer interaction that influences creative decisions and intellectual property rights; and the examination of power dynamics within fan cultures and their relationship to the wider culture. Fandom Theory recognizes fans as active agents in creating and interpreting cultural meanings, challenging traditional notions of passive media consumption. When we apply Fandom Theory to TikTok, we can appreciate the platform’s unique ability to foster and amplify fan cultures. TikTok’s features and design principles enable users to not only consume music but to participate actively in music-related content creation. Hashtag challenges, for example, invite users to engage with a song in a creative and personalized way, producing a wide array of user-generated content that can extend the life cycle and reach of the song. The ‘duet’ feature on TikTok is another powerful tool for fan engagement. By allowing users to create side-by-side videos with original content, duets foster a sense of collaboration and community among users. They also allow fans to interact directly with their favorite artists, blurring the traditional boundary between producer and consumer. TikTok’s algorithm, which is designed to surface content from a diverse array of users, can spotlight lesser-known artists and songs, facilitating the formation of niche fan communities. By giving voice to a diverse range of fans and creators, TikTok democratizes the music fandom, making it more accessible and inclusive. The sense of belonging and shared identity that emerges within TikTok’s music-oriented subcultures contributes significantly to the success and longevity of certain songs and artists. The platform gives fans the tools to engage deeply with the music they love, transforming them into active agents in the music production and distribution process. This shift in the fan-artist relationship, from passive consumption to active participation, has profound implications for the music industry. It challenges traditional models of music production and consumption, suggesting new possibilities for fan engagement and community-building in the digital age. To better understand the relationship between TikTok and Fandom Theory and how they complement each other, let us delve into an example from the K-Pop cultural sphere.   

 

BTS Dance Challenge: A successful practice of Fan Engagement and Collaboration on TikTok

TikTok’s ability to revolutionize fan engagement in the music industry had been demonstrated by the BTS Dance Challenge. This challenge highlights the active fan engagement and collaborative behaviors that occur within the K-Pop community on TikTok. The BTS Dance Challenge emerged as a viral trend on TikTok, in which fans created videos showcasing their dance skills while performing choreography from BTS music videos. These videos often incorporated creative interpretations, personal styles, and innovative choreographic adaptations. The challenge not only provided an avenue for fans to express their admiration for BTS but also fostered a sense of community and collaboration among fans worldwide. The success of the BTS Dance Challenge can be seen through its widespread participation, global reach, and cultural impact. The challenge garnered over 3.9 millions views and engagements, with hashtags such as  #BTSdancechallenge ,  #BTSDanceCover , and  #BTSARMY gaining significant popularity and trending on the platform. (Marais, J., 2022) According to Jenkins (1992), fan communities form around shared interests and engage in participatory culture, a concept embodied by the BTS Dance Challenge. Fans didn’t just consume content; they actively participated by creating and sharing their dance covers. TikTok’s duet feature facilitated direct interaction between fans and BTS members, blurring the line between artist and fan, and enhancing the sense of connection within the fandom. Baym (2018) notes that fan communities foster mutual support and shared identity. Fans participating in the BTS Dance Challenge utilized comments, reactions, and collaborations to support each other, thus reinforcing their shared identity as BTS fans. TikTok’s algorithm promoted diverse users, allowing for the formation of niche fan communities. The shift in fan engagement brought about by TikTok has given rise to a more democratized music discovery process. Instead of relying on the traditional model of radio airplay, album sales, and record label marketing, artists – no matter if they are underground or mainstream, now have the chance to directly access fans and showcase their music through innovative platforms. This is particularly significant for emerging or independent artists who may struggle to find an audience through traditional channels. By uploading their music to TikTok and encouraging user interaction through challenges or trends, artists can generate organic reach and create a grassroots fan base. Although BTS already had a considerable fanbase, the TikTok challenge offered an opportunity for more extensive global engagement. Fans did not simply passively consume BTS’s music; they actively participated in the creation of dance videos, thereby promoting the songs and extending their reach to potential new fans. And the change in this mode of consumption may have a profound impact on the music industry in the longer term.  

 

Further discussion

Throughout the exploration, reading, and contemplation of this topic, I found the experience immensely enriching. Even though it’s primarily an exercise in literature review, it has ignited my interest in tTheories of cCommunication tTechnologies. There’s a wish to delve deeper and further explore this fascinating topic. As I conducted this literature review, numerous questions arose. For instance, around 2016, while music industry professionals were embroiled in copyright disputes, how did TikTok’s developers manage to pioneer a novel direction and successfully launch a social platform centered on participatory culture in 2017? I wonder whether their product development process was informed by the theories we’ve dissected in our analysis. Further, I’m curious about whether future developers with technological advancements at their disposal could use these research insights to fill the existing gap in the music and participatory culture market. Therefore, in this discussion, I aim to offer some perspectives for future researchers, particularly from the standpoint of Blockchain Technology.  

 

Insights from TikTok’s Success for Emerging Tech: Blockchain Developers

Blockchain technology embodies transparency. Blockchain developers can glean lessons from TikTok’s successful deployment of the Social Presence Theory. By designing features that augment user interaction and foster a sense of community, blockchain platforms can stimulate stronger user engagement. For instance, functions facilitating real-time interaction or collaborative endeavors, similar to TikTok’s duet feature, could enhance the sense of social presence within blockchain environments. This could be especially impactful for decentralized social media platforms or collaborative DApps (Decentralized Applications) built on blockchain.  

 

Algorithmic Bias and Inclusivity

TikTok leverages recommendation algorithms to curate personalized content for its users. While this enhances the user experience, it might also reinforce existing biases, potentially marginalizing certain voices or perspectives. (For example, short-form dance music might be favored on TikTok over longer pieces.) A question stemming from the bias could be: How can platforms like TikTok ensure that their algorithms foster diversity and inclusivity within music when they operate within a fixed frame? Despite the nascent aspects of blockchain technology, its decentralized nature presents a more democratic alternative to conventional recommendation algorithms. Platforms built on blockchain could harness this feature to create a more inclusive content discovery process, where users wield more control over the content they consume, and artists from diverse backgrounds have equal opportunities to be visible.

 

References

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